The Sub-Saharan Refugee Crisis: Three Decades of Somali Refugees in Kenya, How did Kenya become the home of half a million Somali refugees? Three Decades of Somali Refugees in Kenya. How did Kenya become the home of half a million Somali refugees?
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Jun 13, 2023
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Abstract
The case study seeks to unpack the origins of Somali displacement and the subsequent Kenyan policy responses to the unfolding crisis.
The Somali refugee crisis is unique. Somalia has been the site of one of the longest humanitarian crises in the world. There is not simply one reason for so many globally and internally displaced Somalis, but an accumulation of factors.
The research paper shall follow a threefold structure. Firstly, an outline of the context under which these people became refugees to aid understanding of the displacement from Somalia over three decades. Secondly, this paper shall address why Kenya is the predominant destination of those leaving Somalia. This section shall also focus on Kenyan policy in response to the evolving refugee situation. Finally, this paper will focus on the changing policy of Kenya, the attempts to resettle Somali refugees and to close the Dadaab complex. One will pose the question why this policy is not working.
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References
Bibliography
Books, Journals and Reports.
Abdi, A.M. (2005) 'In Limbo: Dependency, Insecurity, and Identity amongst Somali Refugees in Dadaab Camps', Refugees and Stateless Persons in Limbo, 22(2).
Adepoju, A. (2002) 'Issues and recent trends in international migration in Sub- Saharan Africa', International Social Science Journal, 52(165).
Betts, A. (2013) 'KENYA: Humanitarian Containment and the Somalis', in Betts, A. (ed.) Survival Migration: Failed Governance and the Crisis of Displacement. London: Cornell University Press.
Hale, E. (2020) 'The 7 largest refugee camps in the world', Refugee Council USA, 3rd September.
Hammond, L. (2014) Somali refugee displacements in the near region: Analysis and Recommendations Paper for the UNHCR Global Initiative on Somali Refugees, Geneva: UNHCR, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/55152c699.pdf (Accessed: 4th December 2020).
Kessels, E., Durner, T. and Schwartz, M. (2016) Violent Extremism and Instability in the Greater Horn of Africa: An Examination of Drivers and Responses, Indiana: Global Centre on Cooperative Security.
Lindley, A. (2011) 'Between a Protracted and a Crisis Situation: Policy Responses to Somali Refugees in Kenya', Refugee Survey Quarterly, 30(4). [Online]. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/rsq/article/30/4/14/1527765 (Accessed: 17th November 2020).
Menkhaus, K. (2003) 'State Collapse in Somalia: Second Thoughts', Review of African Political Economy, 30(97).
Menkhaus, K. (2010) 'Stabilisation and humanitarian access in a collapsed state: the Somali case', Disasters, 34(3). [Online]. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-7717.2010.01204.x (Accessed: 16th November 2020).
O'Neill, W., Rutinwa, B., Verdirame, G. (2000) 'The Great Lakes: A Survey of the Application of the Exclusion Clauses in the Central African Republic, Kenya and Tanzania', International Journal of Refugee Law, 12(1). [Online]. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/ijrl/article/12/suppl_1/135/1551541(Accessed: 17th November 2020).
Rawlence, B. (2016) City of Thorns: Nine Lives in the World's Largest Refugee Camp, New York: Picador.
Research and Evidence Facility (2020) A Full Circle: Refugee returns between Kenya and Somalia, Kenya: European Union Emergency Trust Fund for Africa, Available at: https://blogs.soas.ac.uk/ref-hornresearch/2020/12/14/a-full-circle-refugee-returns-between-kenya-and-somalia/ (Accessed: 7th December 2020).
Rutinwa, B. (2002a) Prima facie status and refugee protection, New York: UNHCR. Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/3db9636c4.pdf (Accessed: 17th November 2020).
Rutinwa, B. (2002b) 'Document. The end of asylum? The changing nature of refugee policies in Africa', Refugee Survey Quarterly, 21(1). [Online]. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/rsq/article/21/1_and_2/12/1579299 (Accessed: 19th November 2020).
UN (2009) UN refugee agency calls on Kenya to stop forced return of Somali asylum-seekers, Available at: https://news.un.org/en/story/2009/01/288952-un-refugee-agency-calls-kenya-stop-forced-return-somali-asylum-seekers (Accessed: 14th December 2020).
UN (2020) From the Field: COVID-19 just the latest crisis facing Somalia, Available at: https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/06/1066422 (Accessed: 17th December 2020).
UNHCR (2012) Press Release: UNHCR urges Kenya to continue upholding refugee rights, cautions against stigmatizing refugees, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/uk/news/press/2012/12/50d2e9ec6/press-release-unhcr-urges-kenya-continue-upholding-refugee-rights-cautions.html (Accessed: 14th December 2020).
UNHCR (2015) Total Refugees from Somalia: Operations Portal, Available at: https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/horn/location/9922 (Accessed: 14th December 2020).
UNHCR (2020a) Operations: East and Horn of Africa and Great Lakes: Somalia, Available at: https://reporting.unhcr.org/node/2550?y=2020#year (Accessed: 19th November 2020).
UNHCR (2020b) Operational Portal Refugee Situations, Available at: https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/horn (Accessed: 20th November 2020).
UNHCR (2020c) UNHCR Somalia Refugee Returnees, Available at: https://data2.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/83086 (Accessed: 20th November 2020).
UNHCR (2020d) The 1951 Refugee Convention, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/uk/1951-refugee-convention.html (Accessed: 16th December 2020).
UNHCR (2020e) OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/45dc1a682.html (Accessed: 16th December 2020).
UNHCR (2020f) Registration and Documentation, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/ke/registration (Accessed: 9th December 2020).
UNHCR (2020g) Demographics and Population Figures, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/download/?url=Z5JVs2 (Accessed: 16th December 2020).
UNHCR (2020h) Voluntary Repatriation of Somali Refugees from Kenya, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/5616280b9.pdf (Accessed: 15th December 2020).
UNHCR (2020i) Figures at a Glance, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/ke/figures-at-a-glance (Accessed: 17th December 2020).
UNHCR Database (2020) Refugee Data Finder, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/download/?url=QbR5 (Accessed: 13th December 2020).
UNICEF OCHA (2020) Humanitarian Action for Children 2021 - Somalia, New York: United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), Available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/humanitarian-action-children-2021-somalia (Accessed: 15th December 2020).
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) (2017) Somalia Drought Response Report No. 2, New York: United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).
Articles and Websites
Africa News (2019) Kenya indefinitely closes border with Somalia, trade ban imposed, Available at: https://www.africanews.com/2019/06/11/kenya-indefinitely-closes-border-with-somalia-trade-ban-imposed/ (Accessed: 21st November 2020).
Al Jazeera (2011) Somalia to Dadaab: The journey from hell, Available at: https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2011/7/14/somalia-to-dadaab-the-journey-from-hell (Accessed: 16th December 2020).
All Africa (2020) Kenya Set to Reopen Border with Somalia, Available at: https://allafrica.com/stories/202006220380.html (Accessed: 21st November 2020).
Amnesty International (2018) Kenya: Failure to register Somali refugees putting them at risk of starvation and abuse, Available at: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/02/kenya-failure-to-register-somali-refugees-putting-them-at-risk-of-starvation-and-abuse/ (Accessed: 16th December 2020).
Amnesty International (2019) Kenya must not force refugees back to Somalia by closing Dadaab camp, Available at: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2019/03/kenya-must-not-force-refugees-back-to-somalia-by-closing-dadaab-camp/(Accessed: 20th November 2020).
ERSI Maps (2020) The World's 10 Largest Refugee Camps, Available at: https://storymaps.esri.com/stories/2016/refugee-camps/#map (Accessed: 15th November 2020).
Financial Times (2017) Kenya court rules against decision to shut refugee camp, Available at: https://www.ft.com/content/1a7c8494-eec9-11e6-930f-061b01e23655 (Accessed: 16th December 2020).
Human Rights Watch (2016) Kenya: Involuntary Refugee Returns to Somalia, Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/09/15/kenya-involuntary-refugee-returns-somalia (Accessed: 16th December 2020).
Human Rights Watch (2019) Kenya: Reverse Move to Close Refugee Camp, Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/03/27/kenya-reverse-move-close-refugee-camp (Accessed: 21st November 2020).
Human Rights Watch (2020) Somalia Events of 2019, Available at: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2020/country-chapters/somalia(Accessed: 13th December 2020).
National Public Radio Africa (2020) Kenyan Government Threatens To Close Dadaab Refugee Camp, Available at: https://www.npr.org/2019/03/28/707529616/kenyan-government-threatens-to-close-dadaab-refugee-camp?t=1606048378510(Accessed: 21st November 2020).
WikiTravel (2020) Somalia Travel Guidance, Available at: https://wikitravel.org/en/Somalia (Accessed: 12th December 2020).
Books, Journals and Reports.
Abdi, A.M. (2005) 'In Limbo: Dependency, Insecurity, and Identity amongst Somali Refugees in Dadaab Camps', Refugees and Stateless Persons in Limbo, 22(2).
Adepoju, A. (2002) 'Issues and recent trends in international migration in Sub- Saharan Africa', International Social Science Journal, 52(165).
Betts, A. (2013) 'KENYA: Humanitarian Containment and the Somalis', in Betts, A. (ed.) Survival Migration: Failed Governance and the Crisis of Displacement. London: Cornell University Press.
Hale, E. (2020) 'The 7 largest refugee camps in the world', Refugee Council USA, 3rd September.
Hammond, L. (2014) Somali refugee displacements in the near region: Analysis and Recommendations Paper for the UNHCR Global Initiative on Somali Refugees, Geneva: UNHCR, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/55152c699.pdf (Accessed: 4th December 2020).
Kessels, E., Durner, T. and Schwartz, M. (2016) Violent Extremism and Instability in the Greater Horn of Africa: An Examination of Drivers and Responses, Indiana: Global Centre on Cooperative Security.
Lindley, A. (2011) 'Between a Protracted and a Crisis Situation: Policy Responses to Somali Refugees in Kenya', Refugee Survey Quarterly, 30(4). [Online]. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/rsq/article/30/4/14/1527765 (Accessed: 17th November 2020).
Menkhaus, K. (2003) 'State Collapse in Somalia: Second Thoughts', Review of African Political Economy, 30(97).
Menkhaus, K. (2010) 'Stabilisation and humanitarian access in a collapsed state: the Somali case', Disasters, 34(3). [Online]. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-7717.2010.01204.x (Accessed: 16th November 2020).
O'Neill, W., Rutinwa, B., Verdirame, G. (2000) 'The Great Lakes: A Survey of the Application of the Exclusion Clauses in the Central African Republic, Kenya and Tanzania', International Journal of Refugee Law, 12(1). [Online]. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/ijrl/article/12/suppl_1/135/1551541(Accessed: 17th November 2020).
Rawlence, B. (2016) City of Thorns: Nine Lives in the World's Largest Refugee Camp, New York: Picador.
Research and Evidence Facility (2020) A Full Circle: Refugee returns between Kenya and Somalia, Kenya: European Union Emergency Trust Fund for Africa, Available at: https://blogs.soas.ac.uk/ref-hornresearch/2020/12/14/a-full-circle-refugee-returns-between-kenya-and-somalia/ (Accessed: 7th December 2020).
Rutinwa, B. (2002a) Prima facie status and refugee protection, New York: UNHCR. Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/3db9636c4.pdf (Accessed: 17th November 2020).
Rutinwa, B. (2002b) 'Document. The end of asylum? The changing nature of refugee policies in Africa', Refugee Survey Quarterly, 21(1). [Online]. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/rsq/article/21/1_and_2/12/1579299 (Accessed: 19th November 2020).
UN (2009) UN refugee agency calls on Kenya to stop forced return of Somali asylum-seekers, Available at: https://news.un.org/en/story/2009/01/288952-un-refugee-agency-calls-kenya-stop-forced-return-somali-asylum-seekers (Accessed: 14th December 2020).
UN (2020) From the Field: COVID-19 just the latest crisis facing Somalia, Available at: https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/06/1066422 (Accessed: 17th December 2020).
UNHCR (2012) Press Release: UNHCR urges Kenya to continue upholding refugee rights, cautions against stigmatizing refugees, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/uk/news/press/2012/12/50d2e9ec6/press-release-unhcr-urges-kenya-continue-upholding-refugee-rights-cautions.html (Accessed: 14th December 2020).
UNHCR (2015) Total Refugees from Somalia: Operations Portal, Available at: https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/horn/location/9922 (Accessed: 14th December 2020).
UNHCR (2020a) Operations: East and Horn of Africa and Great Lakes: Somalia, Available at: https://reporting.unhcr.org/node/2550?y=2020#year (Accessed: 19th November 2020).
UNHCR (2020b) Operational Portal Refugee Situations, Available at: https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/horn (Accessed: 20th November 2020).
UNHCR (2020c) UNHCR Somalia Refugee Returnees, Available at: https://data2.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/83086 (Accessed: 20th November 2020).
UNHCR (2020d) The 1951 Refugee Convention, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/uk/1951-refugee-convention.html (Accessed: 16th December 2020).
UNHCR (2020e) OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/45dc1a682.html (Accessed: 16th December 2020).
UNHCR (2020f) Registration and Documentation, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/ke/registration (Accessed: 9th December 2020).
UNHCR (2020g) Demographics and Population Figures, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/download/?url=Z5JVs2 (Accessed: 16th December 2020).
UNHCR (2020h) Voluntary Repatriation of Somali Refugees from Kenya, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/5616280b9.pdf (Accessed: 15th December 2020).
UNHCR (2020i) Figures at a Glance, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/ke/figures-at-a-glance (Accessed: 17th December 2020).
UNHCR Database (2020) Refugee Data Finder, Available at: https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/download/?url=QbR5 (Accessed: 13th December 2020).
UNICEF OCHA (2020) Humanitarian Action for Children 2021 - Somalia, New York: United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), Available at: https://reliefweb.int/report/somalia/humanitarian-action-children-2021-somalia (Accessed: 15th December 2020).
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) (2017) Somalia Drought Response Report No. 2, New York: United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).
Articles and Websites
Africa News (2019) Kenya indefinitely closes border with Somalia, trade ban imposed, Available at: https://www.africanews.com/2019/06/11/kenya-indefinitely-closes-border-with-somalia-trade-ban-imposed/ (Accessed: 21st November 2020).
Al Jazeera (2011) Somalia to Dadaab: The journey from hell, Available at: https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2011/7/14/somalia-to-dadaab-the-journey-from-hell (Accessed: 16th December 2020).
All Africa (2020) Kenya Set to Reopen Border with Somalia, Available at: https://allafrica.com/stories/202006220380.html (Accessed: 21st November 2020).
Amnesty International (2018) Kenya: Failure to register Somali refugees putting them at risk of starvation and abuse, Available at: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/02/kenya-failure-to-register-somali-refugees-putting-them-at-risk-of-starvation-and-abuse/ (Accessed: 16th December 2020).
Amnesty International (2019) Kenya must not force refugees back to Somalia by closing Dadaab camp, Available at: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2019/03/kenya-must-not-force-refugees-back-to-somalia-by-closing-dadaab-camp/(Accessed: 20th November 2020).
ERSI Maps (2020) The World's 10 Largest Refugee Camps, Available at: https://storymaps.esri.com/stories/2016/refugee-camps/#map (Accessed: 15th November 2020).
Financial Times (2017) Kenya court rules against decision to shut refugee camp, Available at: https://www.ft.com/content/1a7c8494-eec9-11e6-930f-061b01e23655 (Accessed: 16th December 2020).
Human Rights Watch (2016) Kenya: Involuntary Refugee Returns to Somalia, Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/09/15/kenya-involuntary-refugee-returns-somalia (Accessed: 16th December 2020).
Human Rights Watch (2019) Kenya: Reverse Move to Close Refugee Camp, Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/03/27/kenya-reverse-move-close-refugee-camp (Accessed: 21st November 2020).
Human Rights Watch (2020) Somalia Events of 2019, Available at: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2020/country-chapters/somalia(Accessed: 13th December 2020).
National Public Radio Africa (2020) Kenyan Government Threatens To Close Dadaab Refugee Camp, Available at: https://www.npr.org/2019/03/28/707529616/kenyan-government-threatens-to-close-dadaab-refugee-camp?t=1606048378510(Accessed: 21st November 2020).
WikiTravel (2020) Somalia Travel Guidance, Available at: https://wikitravel.org/en/Somalia (Accessed: 12th December 2020).